Gwiritsitsani

Kuwunikiranso masitepe: Zipangizo ndi kuphatikiza, kutsatira malamulo amkati ndi chitetezo, misonkhano ndi kuyika

Ngati pali masitepe m'nyumba kapena nyumba, nthawi zonse zimakhala gawo lodziwika bwino la mkati. Ndiwo mpanda ndendende umapanga zokongoletsera zazikulu. Koma nthawi yomweyo, ndizosatheka kuiwala kuti cholinga chachikulu cha kapangidwe kameneka ndikuwonetsetsa kuti chitetezo chizikhala chopanda tanthauzo.

"SM2kvadrat" yotseguka yopangidwa ndi chitsulo chosapanga dzimbiri, mwadala adagwira mwadala nkhalango zam'madzi kapena mitengo yayikulu yozungulira ndi zingwe zamanja ndi zowoneka bwino. Mwamwayi, mndandanda wa zojambula zamalo ndizoposa zochepa: Ambiri amagawidwa mu chitoto (chofala kwambiri), pazenera komanso kuphatikiza. Milandu yowopsa, monga, mwachitsanzo, m'masitepe ena kumatanthwe (onani "Masitepe" pamagogo "), mpanda umazindikira gawo la katundu pamasitepe. Koma nthawi zambiri kumakhala kapangidwe kake kokha, komwe kumatha kuphatikizidwa ndi gawo lonyamula mtundu uliwonse: pakukula, cosos, ma bits, otola idr. Ndemanga za njanjizo ndizovuta popanga masitepe enieni, amapitilira pazowononga ndikuyambitsa zovuta zambiri pokhazikitsa. Mwa njira, mawu oti "zokangana" nthawi zina amabwera chifukwa chofanana ndi mawu oti "maphwando", pomwe amatanthauza kapangidwe ka mpanda.

Tsatanetsatane wa tsatanetsatane

Ngakhale chikhomo choyambirira, mpanda wa-, masitepe a zaka ziwiri amatha kukhala ndi zinthu zambiri zochulukirapo. Zinthu zazikulu za racks (ngati mipanda yake ndi matabwa, amatchedwa zipilala kapena zosema), zodzaza (chodzaza (chodzaza) ndi zenera) ndi zenera. Komabe, ma racks onyamula si chinthu chovomerezeka. Nthawi zina okhazikika okhazikika omwe amapereka kuti adzaze, ndikulimbikitsidwa pakukula, cosos, kapena matanda ochulukirapo.

Nthano ya balyasin

Balasins ali ndi mizere ya masitepe, khonde, khonde ija.d. Ma bandumu odziwika kwambiri mu mawonekedwe a mitsinje (miphika), yomwe imatha kukuthwa kuchokera nkhuni, kuwumbidwa kuchokera ku pulasitala, konkriti, pulasitiki It.D. Mabatani opanga nkhuni nthawi zambiri amapangidwa pamanja kapena pamakina angapo a axis. Bayidasina amatchedwanso kuti woponyedwa, woponyedwa kapena wopindika wachitsulo ngati ali patali ndipo ali ndi mawonekedwe ovuta. Mabatani osenda, omwe amakongoletsa ulusi wotseguka, nthawi zina amaphatikiza ndi lotayirira, ndipo nthawi zonse zojambulazo nthawi zambiri zimakulunga kuchokera pa ma bassine angapo.

The Discuve Vent Pakati pa mizati imadzazidwa ndi zigawo zozungulira kapena zazitali (zigawo zazitali) kapena zidutswa zolimba (zopangidwa, ziphaso).

Kuphatikiza pa mpanda wazitsulo, zinthu zazitali zodzaza mu ndodo imagwiritsidwa ntchito mwachangu, amatchedwa antipor, kubwereketsa singano, kapena olimbikitsa. Pakati pa ma rack, zingwe nthawi zina zimatambasulidwa ndipo zingwe zimachitika kawirikawiri. Zinthu zowonjezera zitha kupezeka pa njanji: ma rack rack, zomwe zimaphatikiza pamwamba pamiyala ndikudutsa pansi pa dzanja, ndipo nthawi zina zimagwiritsa ntchito mawu oti "

Ngati malo pakati pa onyamula katundu amatsekedwa ndi tsamba lolimba kapena zinthu zolakwika, ndiye kuti makeke amatchedwa pazenera. Ngati zojambulazo zimaphatikizidwa ndi grilles zimaphatikizidwa.

Gawo limodzi la pafupifupi mpanda uliwonse wa masitepe - ma handrail. Sizimaimira chinthu chimodzi chokha. Nthawi zambiri imasonkhanitsidwa pogwiritsa ntchito chitsamba chochokera molunjika ndi cholunjika, ndipo malekezero amatsekedwa ndi mapula okongoletsera.

Chithunzi 1.

"Cm2kvadrat"

Chithunzi 2.

"Cm2kvadrat"

Chithunzi 3.

"Nkhalango ya Caucasian"

Chithunzi 4.

Honka.

1-4. Mwinanso, kapena nyumba imodzi yokha yomwe kuthekera kwa mtengo sikuwululidwa ndi chiyero chotere monga chitsiritso cha masitepe. Zipilala zokongola zabwino mu mawonekedwe a ziboliboli zokongola ndizabwino, ma bando olondola okongoletsedwa ndi malembedwe am'mimba abwino kwambiri ndi abwino kwambiri. Zonsezi zimathandizanso kuti opanga azikonzanso mkhalidwe wakale kapena gulu lankhondo la Victoria

Chitetezo cha mayendedwe

Sichiri chosowa kwambiri chinthu chachikulu ndipo pafupifupi chinthu chokha cha masitepe chimakhala chododometsa cha mkati. Kalanga ine, zichitika kuti nthawi yomweyo imayiwala pa kufunika komanso chitetezo. Masitepe "akulira" ndi okongola kwambiri, komanso pofuna kuwapatsa ndalama zambiri mpandawo uzionekere kuposa zongoyerekeza, ndipo nthawi zina, zowonjezera, zomwe ndi zowonjezera kwa malamulo). Nthawi zina mpanda sukukwaniritsa malamulo otetezedwa chifukwa choti omanga sadziwa miyezo yomwe ilipo kapena kufunafuna kuchepetsa mtengo. Koma, ngakhale mabandiwo ndi okwera mtengo kwambiri kuposa machesi, sizokayikitsa kupulumutsa pa iwo.

Malinga ndi GOPT 25772- 83 "Kusuntha masitepe, makonde ndi madenga a chitsulo", ma handral amakhala pamtunda wa 900mm, kuyambira sing'anga yam'munsi, 100mm. Snip 2.01.07- 85 "Kutumiza ndi kuwonekera" kuyenera kulimbana ndi katundu wa 0.3 k k k kndi / 30 m (30 kgf / m) kukhudzana ndi ma handrail.

Chofunika kwambiri kuti musunthe pagawo la masitepe ndi mzere wamanja: mulifupi wake ndi 55-85mm. Kutaya mosapita m'mbali kuti zikhale ndi magetsi ndi magetsi ndi ngodya pamasitepe (zopindika zokhotakhota, zomwe mumakonda). Mwachikondi, malekezero a ma handrail ayenera kuchitidwa ndi kuzungulira. Njira yothetsera yomwe gawo loyamba la Marichi lidasiyidwa popanda magetsi, ndizosatheka kutchedwa wopambana: kugwa kuchokera pagawo lapansi sikungakhale koopsa kuposa kale!).

Chithunzi 5.

Ukadaulo wamphamvu

Chithunzi 6.

"Maestro"

Chithunzi 7.

"Maestro"

Chithunzi 8.

"Cm2kvadrat"

5. Zogulitsa zopangidwa ndi chitsulo ndizosavuta kupereka bend

6. Khoma loti masitepe ali oyandikana nawo, amatha kutetezedwa kuwonongeka ndi kuipitsidwa kwa kumaliza ntchito pogwiritsa ntchito zojambula

7. Kuzungulira kwa dzanja kumapangidwa mu mawonekedwe a rack

8. Zenera loyang'ana masitepe, kugwedezeka ndi njanji zamatabwa

Ngati pali ana mnyumbamo, kuyika kwachiwiri, "High's Handrail" otsika gawo lalitali, mpaka 20mm. Iwo omwe sakhala mu zowawa nthawi zambiri kapena magwiridwe, timalimbikitsa kusankha mawonekedwe olimba. Ngati masana ali pafupi ndi makoma, mpanda umapangidwa, monga lamulo, mbali imodzi. Ngati masitepe akuchokera kumakoma mbali zonse ziwiri (kupatula ndi masitepe a screw). Mopanda kanthu, ngati mtunda wa Stair umangokhala mbali zonse za makhoma, kufunikira kwa mpandawo, koma popanda dzanja, sikunachitike ndi: kumakhazikika pakhoma ndikupatsidwa pa 50-70mm.

Kukonda chuma

Ngakhale mipanda yosavuta kwambiri kuchokera ku pine kapena larch mitanda ya gawo lozungulira kapena lozungulira, losalala kapena lokhala ndi njira yopumira imatha kupatsa chithumwa mkati. Dziko la Cozy, mbali zambiri zamphamvu kwambiri, zokhala ndi mbiri yakale - masitaelo onsewa amatanthauza kugwiritsa ntchito nkhuni zophulika.

Osati varnish imodzi

Zinthu zamatabwa zimatha kupakidwa utoto uliwonse malinga ndi zomwe zimapangika. Ndi kumaliza kwawo, mitundu yonse yamitundu igwiritsiridwanso ntchito: mapangidwe ochita kupanga, kukoka, toning ya mitundu yopanda matabwa. Tiyenera kukumbukira kuti chifukwa cha kusiyana kwakukulu mu kachulukidwe ka ulusi, nkhuni za ma lovomerezo sizimaphatikizidwa ndi kuperekera, kotero mtundu wofunikira umagwirizanitsidwa ndi utoto. Kukutidwa ndi mikangano iwiri: Choyamba, kapangidwe ka mtengowo kamabisika kwakukulu, ndipo kachiwiri, kuwonongeka kwamakina komwe kunali kowoneka bwino panjira yopangidwa ndi njirayi. Chifukwa chake, paini ndi Larch Bwino kusiya mtundu wawo wachilengedwe. Zinthu zolimba posachedwapa zakhala zikukonda kuwira kapena mafuta opanda utoto.

Chinyezi cha nkhuni chomwe chimapangitsa kuti ntchito yomanga mipanda isadutse 12%. Tikutsindika kuti ngakhale nkhuni zouma mnyumba momwe zimangokhala nthawi yake, idzakunkhunizidwa chifukwa cha maliseche. Kuumitsa matabwa kumapangidwa ndi nkhuni zazifupi za mitundu yotsatirayi: firmware (thuok, beach, phulusa, alder (paini, lar). Kutopa kwambiri ndi dzanja lonse lalitali lalitali lopapatiza. Choyipa kwambiri, zidutswa zazifupi zafupi ndi ma microscope, omwe ali ndi masamba a curcinear omwe amadulidwa kuchokera kumabodi osiyanasiyana. Amakhala okhalitsa, monganso akhoza kulumbira. Dziwani momwe dzanja limapangidwira, sizovuta ngati mumvera chitsogozo cha ulusi ndi ma seams. Pewani kubera balasins nthawi zonse kumapangidwa ndi malo olimba, popeza kutembenuka, ngati kulibe wina, kumawonetsa mawonekedwe a mitengo, ndipo sayenera kuphwanya. Nthawi yomweyo, kuti chinthu chomalizidwa sichimaphunzira ndipo sichimasweka, chifukwa ma billera amatenga mipiringidzo yazomera pafupi ndi pakati. Zithunzi za mipanda mu kalembedwe kambiri nthawi zina zimapangidwa kuchokera ku zikopa zopakazidwa ndi mipata kapena zosemedwa, koma mutha kuzipanga ndi zopondera zochulukirapo (zopangidwa ndi zokongoletsera) mtengo wamtengo wapatali kapena ukadaulo wochokera ku njanji.

Kulowetsana pazitsulo, komwe kumayambitsidwa ndikuwotcha, kunayamba kuthokoza kwa mafashoni okhazikika pa kalembedwe kambiri, komanso mtengo wotsika. Zovala zosapanga dzimbiri zomwe zimakupera zimakupera ndi matte kuwala kapena kupukutidwa pagalasi. Chitsulo chakuda chimakutidwa ndi pulasitiki, enmells, chrome ndi nickel, aluminiyam overlos ndi ovomerezeka. Zinthu ngati izi zili ndi zabwino zambiri: amakhala olimba, okhazikika, amakhala ndi misa yaying'ono komanso yosavuta kuyika. Zovuta zomwezo zing'onozing'ono sizingatchulidwe: zimazizira kukhudza, ndipo zimayenda kuchokera ku zala.

Chithunzi 9.

Chithunzi 10.

Chithunzi 11.

Chithunzi 12.

Albino Fontanot.

9-12. Zovala zopepuka zopangidwa ndi chitsulo, matabwa ndi pulasitiki ndizokongola kwambiri. Dongosolo la chilengedwe chonse likukupatsani mwayi kuti muikeni pa madigi ndi madigiri otsetsereka

Zopangidwa zopangidwa ndi mawonekedwe otseguka maluwa kapena geometric zizikongoletsa miyala yonse komanso masitepe opangira matabwa. Kupuma kwa zinthu zopangidwa ndi zinthu zopangidwa kumapangitsa kuti zitheke ndi malingaliro ena onse opanga ndi zofuna za eni nyumba. Zokongola komanso zolimba, zolemekezeka komanso zokongola, mipanda iyi imakhala bwino kukhala yothandizirana mwa mawonekedwe amakono kapena Gothic. Komabe, ndikofunikira kukumbukira kuti mazira omwe anawapangitsa ndi olemera kwambiri, ndipo popanga masitepe, ndiye poyenera kuganizira katunduyo pazinthu zothandizira zomwe angapange.

Chithunzi 13.

"Cm2kvadrat"

Chithunzi 14.

"Tala Master"

Chithunzi 15.

IRIS-UTUMIS

Chithunzi 16.

"Cm2kvadrat"

13. Mabuku odzaza ndi tsamba la Web kuchokera pa bala yachitsulo: Kuyambira kwa njira yosinthira sikutsutsana ndi chitetezo

14-16. Pali njira zingapo zotetezera mipanda yopangidwa kuchokera ku Trussion: Kugwiritsa ntchito kapangidwe kake, kutsanzira zitsulo zosakhalapo), enamel zokutira, utoto ufa

Hi-Tech Story

Tsatanetsatane wa mapepala nthawi zina amalumikizana ndi wina ndi mnzake mothandizidwa ndi zitsulo zazitsulo zophatikizika ndi nkhuni, galasi lokhazikika. Nthawi zina amaphatikiza chitsulo chakuda ndikutulutsa zitsulo zopanda mphamvu (mkuwa, mkuwa, mkuwa), ndikupanga mavinya ovuta kwambiri.

Azillayer kapena galasi lokhala ndi zodetsa ndi makulidwe a 8-12mmmmmmmmablemmmmake a pavesi la pa mawonekedwe a masewera apamwamba kwambiri. Toning, kukhwima, zojambula za diamondi - mndandanda wosakwanira wa njira zokongoletsera magalasi. Zojambula nthawi zina zimapangidwa kuchokera ku polycarbonate kapena galasi la acrylic. Zipangizozi ndizosavuta komanso zopanda vuto lalikulu lagalasi (shune) lagalasi, koma, mwatsoka, mawonekedwe ake, mawonekedwe ake a zojambulazo siovuta kwambiri, ndipo ndizosavuta kuzikoka.

Kuyesa kunena za zinthu zonse ndi kuphatikiza kwawo, komwe kumapezeka mu masitepe amakono, mwachionekere amalephera. Pearl ndi Crystal, Mica ndi mawindo owoneka bwino, mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya zinthu zomwe zakhala chifukwa chogwiritsa ntchito matekinoloje aposachedwa, amatha kugunda malingaliro a mgwirizano waposachedwa.

Lingaliro la katswiri

Nthawi zina amapanga mpanda wa masitepe omwe amapezeka kale kwa nthawi yayitali komanso njira yovuta kwambiri kuposa kugwirira ntchito kuyambira koyamba mpaka kumapeto. Kuchereza, sizotheka kugwiritsira ntchito zolemba zamakampaniyi: Pofika nthawi yomwe mzerewo ubwera ku mpanda, akhoza kutayika, kapena ayi, sakutchedwa, musawonetse kuvomerezedwa. Zotsatira zake ndikuloweka ku dongosolo lokhazikika, pamaziko a miyeso kuti mubwezeretse zolemba izi, nthawi zambiri kukhazikitsidwa ndi zokambiranazo, komanso kuti muchite zonse za geometry, komanso kuti muchite "Zoyenera" za zidutswa zopangidwa. Kuphatikiza apo, ndikofunikira kuwerengera katundu wovomerezeka pazinthu zomwe zikuchitika pazinthu zomwe zikuchitika, zomwe ndikofunikira kudziwa mawonekedwe a zinthu zomwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito, komanso kapangidwe kazomwe zimagwirizanitsa, nthawi zambiri pomaliza ntchito kale. Chifukwa chake, polojekiti yoyeserera ya njanjiyi ndi theka lakupambana, ndipo imagwira ntchito yomwe imakhudza mtengo wazomwezo sizikuchepera, mwachitsanzo, kapangidwe kazinthu, mtengo wazomwe zimachitika.

Peter Tsygov, Wotsogola Kampani "SM2kvadrat"

Olimba mtima

Pokhazikitsa, othamanga sayenera kukhala owoneka bwino, koma amakakamizidwa kupereka mphamvu zambiri kapangidwe kake, komanso mwayi wosintha ziwalo zake pokonza. Sizotheka kukwaniritsa zofunikira zonsezi nthawi yomweyo.

Njira yapamwamba kwambiri yophatikizira nkhuni - mothandizidwa ndi kulumikizana kwanga. Tikupangira (masitepe pa cosomer - m'masitepe) ndi ma handrails amabowola zisa ndi guluubowo ndikuwongolera malekezero a Barusin mwa iwo. Njira ina ndi pansi pa belasine chomera pa nyengo (plug-mu cylindrical mitundu), ndipo pamwamba imawoloka mu gawo lalitali la dzanja lamanja.

Mitengo Yosankhidwa ndi maronda osankhidwa amabzalidwa pa munga, opangidwa kumapeto kwa taper (cososov) ndi maphwando, kuwonjezera pa misomali yamatabwa. (Masitepe a masitepe a Parrode ndi mpanda wonyamula kuti zikwangwani zimakhazikika pamiyala.) Njira yovomerezeka ndi yodalirika, koma imayenera kukhala yolondola kwambiri. Zotsatira zake ndizovuta ndi kupanga makwerero, pambali pake, ndizovuta kwambiri kusintha Balasine wowonongeka mu mpanda.

Masitepe amakono amakono amaikika pogwiritsa ntchito zitsulo kapena wamba, zomangira za zomangira, ma bolts ndi mtedza ndi mitu yolumikizidwa.

Mipanda yachitsulo imasonkhanitsidwa pogwiritsa ntchito makina owotcherera kapena olumikizidwa. Ma racks okhala ndi ma flanges owala ("zidendene") amaphatikizidwa ndi konkriti wolimbikitsidwa kutsamba mabatani. Tidzalepheretsa kuti kuyenda ndi masitepe ndi zigamba zina kapena zinthu zina zolimba musanakhazikitse njanji kudzapereka malo opunthira. Nthawi zina mbale zanyumba zimasakanizidwa ndi ma simeti, koma zimamveka pokhapokha ngati kapangidwe ndi kapangidwe kake kamasitepe kumayimbidwa ndi kontrakitala. Zojambula zagalasi zimakhazikika mpaka ku ma racks, kapena pogwiritsa ntchito zitsulo zachitsulo, kwa mitengo yonyamula.

Lingaliro la katswiri

Mukamapanga mpanda wa masitepe ngati gawo la mkati mochokera pamenepo, pali njira yophatikizira yothetsera njira yofananira. Mfundo imeneyi mwina njirayi ndiyotheka kwambiri kuposa luso lopangidwa ndi manja. Kumwa ndi zinthu zina (mwala, matabwa, galasi) zitsulo zopangidwa zimakupatsani mwayi womaliza, zosiyanasiyana. Chifukwa chake, kugwiritsa ntchito zinthu za zopangidwa mwaluso kumaganiziridwa mukamayambitsa internative "knight" kwa amakono ndi mizere ya "madzi a" madzi a ". Popanga zomangira zomangira, zidutswa zamiyala ndikutaya pazitsulo zomwe sizimasankhidwa; Gothic, makono amakono ndi art amatanthauza kuyika kuchokera pagalasi lokhazikika; Mitundu ndi "mapangidwe a" zinthu "kuchokera pamtengo wokalamba. Kuphatikiza apo, kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri kumagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri pokongoletsa luso lopangidwa ndi chitsulo. Yunivesite yachitsulo imatha kuphatikizidwa ndi pafupifupi chithunzi chilichonse chosankhidwa ndi kasitomala. Ndipo chinthu chachikulu chomwe chimakhala chikondi chapadera chochitidwa mu wotupa ndi umunthu wotchulidwa.

Arina Korobeva, Wopanga Irbis-Service

Opanga ndi mitengo

Tpanda zachilengedwe zimatengedwa kuchokera kuzinthu zomalizidwa zanyumba. Zida zotere za masitepe opangira matabwa, kuphatikizapo njanji (zipilala, zopanga zingwe, opanga, zopanga zambiri, "scrtal sc", Mtengo "," mbuye "," novik "," sm2kvadrat "(zonse-Russia) Idr.

Zolinganiza mipanda yosiyanasiyana (makamaka yopanga zigawenga), "Eutistia", "Euel", "a Youlspetompplekt" (onse) idr. Mtengo wa njanji umadalira mtundu wazinthu ndi momwe zimakhalira ndi momwe zimapangira zinthu. Zotsika mtengo zonse zokongoletsa st. 3 (Zitsulo zosapanga dzimbiri ndizokwera mtengo kwambiri kuposa 1.5 nthawi, mkuwa wachilengedwe - nthawi zopitilira 2). Chitsulo chosapanga dzimbiri chimakhazikika ndi racks yomwe ili pambuyo pa 500mm imawononga ma ruble 2,000. Kwa 1 tsa. m, ndikudzaza ndi miyala iliyonse yomwe 10mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm imawonjezera mtengo wa ma ruble 7,000. Kwa 1 tsa. m. Chinsalu chojambula kuchokera ku katatu ndi chitsulo chosapanga dzimbiri cha kapangidwe kake (ma sheet athyathyathwa pamiyala mu 800-1200mm) imawononga ma ruble 5,000. Kwa 1 tsa. m. Ngati mukufuna kusintha ku polojekiti wamba, makampani ambiri adzakumana nanu, koma, zikukhudza mtengo.

Chithunzi 17.

"Maestro"

Chithunzi 18.

"Maestro"

Chithunzi 19.

Ukadaulo wamphamvu

17, 19. mpanda wochokera ku mapepala akuluakulu agalasi amitundu yambiri amapereka masitepe apadera

18. Zojambula zamagalasi zitha kuchitidwa mu njira yokakamiza.

Kuchokera kwa opanga zachilendo, timawona albino Fontanot, Maretti, nelur, t.a.i.l. . NEFMS ikuyimira mabizinesi awa mumsika waku Russia ndikukwaniritsa zogulitsa zawo (mwachitsanzo, "maphunziro a mkati mwathu.), Mutha kupatukana mitundu inayake.), Mutha kulekanitsa mitundu inayake.) gulu la zitsulo zapadziko lonse lapansi ndi pulasitiki. Adzawononga pafupifupi 1.5 nthawi yokwera mtengo kuposa kapangidwe kofananira ndikupangidwa kuchokera ku zinthu zomwezi zapakhomo.

Zopangidwa mokwanira, mopanda mphamvu, rangeni mafinya ", masika m", "arbis,", "Tulah" (Russia) Idr . Mtengo wa mipanda yopangidwa - kuchokera ma ruble 4,000. Kwa 1 tsa. m.

Kupanga kwa mabizinesi payekha kudzakhala okwera mtengo kwambiri, chifukwa kupanga kwa zinthu zosafunikira kumafunikira nthawi ya Bo / Rinsese nthawi, ndipo nthawi zina njira zatsopano zaukadaulo.

Kukhazikitsa manyolo kukhala ambuye a wopanga. Mtengo wa kukhazikitsa umadalira zinthu za masitepe a masitepe. Pamtengo kapena chitsulo chamitengo, zotupa za malawizi zimayikidwa pafupifupi 20-30% ya mtengo wake; Ngati masitepe apangidwa ndi konkriti kapena mwala (wachilengedwe kapena wopanga), mtengo wa kuyikapo ungakhale mpaka 45% ya mtengo wa mpanda.